THE IGBOS – SS1 Nigerian History Lesson Note (Second Term)

The Igbo are one of the largest ethnic groups in Africa. They live mainly in southeastern Nigeria, in an area often called Igboland, and speak the Igbo language. Most communities traditionally had no kings and governed themselves through village assemblies, titles and age grades. Their history includes trade, art, colonial rule, the Civil War and many achievements.

Behavioural objectives

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

• State where the Igbo live and describe some ideas about their origins
• Describe the political and social organisation of traditional Igbo society, including titles, age grades and the position of women
• List the main economic activities of the Igbo in the past and today
• Describe Igbo religious beliefs, art, music and oral traditions
• Explain how contact with Europeans, the slave trade and British colonial rule affected the Igbo
• Outline the Nigerian Civil War and name notable Igbo achievers

Origins and early history

Who are the Igbo?

The Igbo (sometimes spelled Ibo) are a distinct cultural group:

• They speak the Igbo language, which has many dialects
• They traditionally live in southeastern Nigeria
• Their homeland is mainly east of the Niger River
• They live in states like Abia, Anambra, Ebonyi, Enugu, and Imo
• Many also live in parts of Delta and Rivers states
• The Igbo have a population of over 40 million people
• They are one of Nigeria’s three largest ethnic groups
• They are known for their entrepreneurial skills and achievements in education
• They have a rich cultural heritage spanning thousands of years
• Many Igbo people now live in other parts of Nigeria and around the world

Where did the Igbo come from?

There are different ideas about where the Igbo came from:

• Archaeological evidence shows people have lived in Igboland for thousands of years
• The Igbo likely developed in their present location over many centuries
• Some traditions say they came from the north or northeast
• Others believe they have always lived in their current homeland
• The ancient site of Igbo-Ukwu (9th century) shows early Igbo civilisation
• Bronze artefacts from Igbo-Ukwu reveal advanced metalworking skills
• Unlike some other groups, the Igbo did not have a single migration story
• Different Igbo communities have different origin stories
• They likely developed from various smaller groups who gradually formed a common identity
• Language and cultural similarities united these different communities

Early settlements

The Igbo created distinctive settlement patterns:

• They typically lived in small, scattered villages rather than large towns
• Villages were often organised around a common ancestry
• Several villages together formed a clan or village-group
• Homes were built using mud, wood, and palm materials
• Compounds were created for extended families
• Locations were chosen near farmland and water sources
• Forest areas were cleared for settlement and farming
• Meeting houses and market spaces were built in village centres
• Some areas had defensive walls and ditches for protection
• Sacred groves and shrines marked important spiritual locations

Political and social organisation

How were the Igbo governed?

Unlike many other African groups, most Igbo communities had no kings:

• The system is often described as “acephalous” (without a head) or “republican”
• Most decisions were made through village assemblies
• All adult men could take part in these meetings
• Women had their own separate but powerful organisations
• Decisions were reached by consensus
• Leadership was earned through achievement
• Titled men (Nze or Ozo) had influence but not absolute power
• Different villages governed themselves independently
• Alliance systems connected different communities
• This system has been called “village democracy”

The title system

Achievement was recognised through titles:

• Men could earn titles like Ozo or Nze
• A title required payment of fees and the performance of rituals
• Titled men formed councils that helped govern
• Titles showed social status and achievement
• Title holders wore special insignia and clothing
• They had special privileges and responsibilities
• They could speak with authority at village meetings
• Titles were earned through personal achievement
• Women could also earn certain titles
• Title systems varied among different Igbo communities

The age grade system

Age groups helped organise community life:

• People born around the same time formed an age grade
• Members moved through life stages together
• Young men’s age grades provided labour for community projects
• They helped maintain roads, clear brush, and build public structures
• They served as a defence force when needed
• They enforced community decisions and rules
• They created bonds across family lines
• They helped integrate young people into adult society
• Women also had age grade associations
• This system provided structure and organisation without centralised authority

Masquerade societies

Secret societies used masks for social control:

• Masked figures represented ancestral spirits
• Only initiated men knew the secrets behind the masks
• Different masks had different functions
• Some enforced moral and social codes
• Others entertained or commemorated events
• The Ekpe, Okonko, and Mmuo societies were important examples
• Women had to stay indoors during certain masquerades
• Masquerades had both religious and political functions
• They helped maintain social order
• They connected the living with the spiritual world

Family structure

The family was the basic social unit:

• Extended families lived in compounds
• The system was patrilineal (family line traced through fathers)
• Polygamy was common (men could have multiple wives)
• Each wife typically had her own house within the compound
• Children belonged to their father’s lineage
• Kinship ties were strongly emphasised
• Family heads made important decisions
• Elders were highly respected
• Children were valued and raised by the entire extended family
• Marriage created alliances between different families

Gender roles and the position of women

Women had unique powers in Igbo society:

• The “dual-sex” political system gave women their own organisations
• Women’s councils made decisions on matters affecting women
• Market trade was often dominated by women
• Women controlled certain crops and food production
• Women could protest against men’s bad behaviour through “sitting on a man”
• Women’s associations enforced standards of behaviour
• Daughters (Umuada) had special powers in their birth families
• Motherhood conferred high status
• Some women held religious offices as priestesses
• Famous women like Omu Okwei became powerful traders

What was the “Osu” system?

Social stratification existed in traditional Igbo society:

• Osu were people dedicated to deities or shrines
• They were considered separate from the rest of society
• They were not allowed to marry non-Osu people
• They faced various social restrictions
• They often lived near shrines or temples
• The system created a form of social inequality
• It was similar to caste systems in other societies
• Christianity later opposed this practice
• Modern Igbo society has worked to eliminate this discrimination
• Laws now prohibit Osu discrimination, though some attitudes persist

Traditional economic activities

Agriculture

Farming was the foundation of Igbo life:

• Yams were the most important crop and symbolised masculinity
• Cassava became important after its introduction
• Women grew crops like cocoyams, beans, and vegetables
• Palm trees provided oil, wine, and building materials
• Kola nuts were grown for ceremonies and trade
• Hoes, machetes, and digging sticks were used as farming tools
• Crop rotation was practised to maintain soil fertility
• Garden plots were created around homes
• More distant fields were farmed for major crops
• Festivals were held to mark agricultural cycles

Trade and markets

Trade was highly developed:

• Regular markets were held on specific days
• Market days rotated among different villages
• Long-distance trade connected the Igbo with other regions
• Trading networks crossed ethnic boundaries
• Women dominated local market trade
• Men typically handled long-distance trade
• Cowrie shells and metal rods were used as currency
• British coins were adopted later
• Famous trading centres included Bende, Uburu, and Onitsha
• Trade created wealth and status for successful merchants

Crafts and industries

Specialised production was well developed:

• Blacksmithing created tools and weapons
• Wood carving produced masks, doors, and household items
• Pottery making was often done by women
• Cloth was woven from cotton and raphia
• Baskets were made using local fibres
• Palm oil was processed
• Body art and decoration
• Leatherworking
• Medicine preparation
• These crafts were organised through family specialisation and apprenticeship

Religious and cultural practices

Traditional religion

Spiritual beliefs shaped Igbo life:

• The Igbo believed in a supreme creator god called Chukwu or Chineke
• Many smaller deities (Alusi) had specific functions
• Ancestors (Ndichie) were venerated
• The earth goddess (Ala or Ani) was especially important
• Each person had a personal guardian spirit (Chi)
• Divination was used to understand spiritual messages
• Oracles like the famous Arochukwu oracle guided decisions
• Priests and priestesses served as spiritual intermediaries
• Certain animals, trees, and locations were sacred
• Spiritual forces explained events in the natural world

Art and material culture

The Igbo created distinctive artistic forms:

• Masks for various ceremonies and masquerades
• Mbari houses with elaborate sculptures and paintings
• Body art including scarification and painting
• Decorated doors and house posts
• Pottery with geometric patterns
• Bronze and brass casting
• Textiles with unique patterns
• Musical instruments including drums, flutes, and string instruments
• Household items decorated with symbolic designs
• Art was both beautiful and spiritually meaningful

Music and dance

Performance arts were central to community life:

• Different music was played for different occasions
• Drumming patterns were complex
• Xylophones, flutes, and horns were used
• Singing often followed a call and response style
• Dance forms existed for celebrations, mourning, and spiritual events
• Age grades performed special dances
• Music accompanied life cycle events
• Professional musicians played at important ceremonies
• Villages or groups held dance competitions
• Songs preserved history and cultural values

Language and oral traditions

The Igbo preserved knowledge through speaking:

• Oral literature was rich, including proverbs, stories, and riddles
• Proverbs (ilu) were especially important in speech
• Stories explained origins, moral lessons, and natural phenomena
• Professional storytellers entertained and educated
• History was preserved through oral accounts
• Praise names recorded personal achievements
• Special language forms were used for ceremonies and rituals
• Talking drums could communicate messages over distances
• Names often contained meaningful messages
• Oratory was highly valued and developed

Contact with Europeans and the colonial era

Early European relations

Initial contacts were mainly through trade:

• Portuguese traders reached the coast in the 15th century
• European trade focused first on slaves, later on palm oil
• Coastal Igbo communities served as middlemen
• Interior communities had less direct contact
• European goods like cloth, alcohol, and guns were imported
• Igbo traders adapted to new opportunities
• Christian missionaries began arriving in the 19th century
• Trading stations were established along rivers
• Some Igbo became interpreters and cultural brokers
• European accounts described Igbo communities and practices

The slave trade

The trans-Atlantic slave trade deeply affected Igboland:

• Many enslaved people from West Africa were Igbo
• Some were captured in wars or raids
• Others were condemned for crimes
• Some were kidnapped by slave traders
• The trade created insecurity and disruption
• It changed warfare patterns and social relations
• It led to defensive settlement patterns
• Some communities created alliances for protection
• It left lasting impacts on population and development
• Igbo culture continued in the Americas, especially in places like Jamaica and Haiti

British colonial rule

European influence eventually led to colonial control:

• British influence increased through the 19th century
• Formal colonial rule began after the Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
• The British initially used “indirect rule” through “warrant chiefs”
• This system failed because it contradicted traditional Igbo democracy
• Igbo areas were administered as part of the Southern Nigeria Protectorate
• Colonial taxes and labour demands caused hardship
• New Western-style courts replaced traditional justice
• Roads, schools, and hospitals were built
• Christianity spread rapidly in many areas
• Traditional political and religious systems were undermined

The Aro Expedition and resistance

The Igbo resisted colonial rule in various ways:

• The British attacked the Arochukwu oracle in 1901-1902
• This “Aro Expedition” aimed to destroy Aro influence
• The Women’s War of 1929 was a major protest against colonial policies
• Thousands of women demonstrated against taxation and other issues
• Some communities refused to pay taxes
• Religious movements opposed European influence
• Passive resistance took the form of non-cooperation
• Cultural practices continued despite disapproval
• Written petitions and appeals challenged unfair policies
• These responses showed Igbo determination to maintain autonomy

Adaptation and change

The Igbo responded to new realities:

• They embraced Western education enthusiastically
• They converted to Christianity in large numbers
• They formed improvement unions to develop their communities
• They created new political organisations
• They adapted traditional institutions to changing times
• They became active in nationalist movements
• They developed new forms of art and literature
• They combined traditional and Western medicine
• They modified farming practices with new crops and techniques
• These adaptations showed flexibility and pragmatism

Modern Igbo society and history

The Nigerian Civil War

A tragic conflict deeply affected Igbo history:

• After Nigeria’s independence in 1960, political tensions grew
• Military coups in 1966 led to the killing of Igbo in northern Nigeria
• The Eastern Region, led by Colonel Ojukwu, declared independence as Biafra
• The civil war lasted from 1967 to 1970
• An estimated 1-3 million people died, many from starvation
• After defeat, Biafra was reintegrated into Nigeria
• The war remains a defining event in Igbo consciousness
• Post-war policies aimed at “No victor, no vanquished”
• Economic recovery took decades
• The experience strengthened Igbo identity in many ways

Cultural resilience

Despite challenges, Igbo culture continues to thrive:

• Traditional festivals are still celebrated
• The New Yam Festival (Iriji or Iwa ji) remains important
• Marriage customs maintain distinctive elements
• Music and dance forms evolve while preserving traditional elements
• Language preservation efforts are ongoing
• Traditional religion is practised alongside Christianity
• Community development is still often organised through hometown associations
• Cultural values of hard work and achievement remain strong
• Modern literature, film, and art draw on Igbo heritage
• Pride in Igbo identity remains strong

Economic activities today

Entrepreneurship continues to be an Igbo strength:

• The Igbo are known throughout Nigeria for business acumen
• Trading remains an important occupation
• Manufacturing and industry developed in cities like Aba and Onitsha
• Many Igbo work in professions such as medicine, law, and engineering
• Education is strongly emphasised as the path to success
• Remittances from Igbo living abroad support local development
• Agriculture is still important but less dominant than before
• Technology and service industries are growing
• Apprenticeship systems have adapted to modern business
• Economic networks extend globally

Notable achievements

The Igbo have contributed significantly to Nigeria and the world:

• Literary figures like Chinua Achebe and Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie
• Political leaders including Nnamdi Azikiwe, Nigeria’s first president
• Scientists, physicians, and academics making global impacts
• Musicians and artists gaining international recognition
• Business leaders and entrepreneurs
• Sports figures including many football (soccer) stars
• Religious leaders of various faiths
• Community developers and activists
• Military leaders and statesmen
• These achievements reflect the Igbo emphasis on personal accomplishment

Evaluation

1. Name five states where the Igbo traditionally live.
2. Describe how decisions were made in a traditional Igbo village.
3. Explain the role of age grades in Igbo community life.
4. State three ways in which women had power in traditional Igbo society.
5. Why did the warrant chief system fail in Igboland?

Assignment

1. Write short notes on the Aro Expedition and the Women’s War of 1929.
2. List four traditional Igbo crafts and four crops grown by the Igbo.
3. Outline the main events of the Nigerian Civil War (1967 to 1970) as they affected the Igbo.