Empire in Western Sudan: Old Ghana, Mali and Songhai Empire in Africa – SS2 Nigerian History Lesson Note (Third Term)

The Western Sudan empires were Ghana, Mali and Songhai, three large African states that ruled one after another in the Sahel, the region south of the Sahara and north of the forests of West Africa. They grew rich by controlling trans-Saharan trade in gold and salt, were influenced by Islam, and were ruled by powerful kings.

Behavioural objectives

By the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. Locate Western Sudan and explain how it differs from the modern country called Sudan.
2. State the features the Ghana, Mali and Songhai empires had in common.
3. Describe the political organisation, economy and religion of each empire.
4. Explain the roles of Sundiata Keita, Mansa Musa, Sunni Ali Ber and Askia Muhammad.
5. Give reasons for the decline of each empire.
6. Compare the three empires and state their legacy.

Where was Western Sudan?

Western Sudan is not the same as the modern country called Sudan. In ancient times, “Western Sudan” meant the lands south of the Sahara Desert and north of the forests in West Africa. This area is also called the Sahel. It includes parts of modern-day Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Senegal, Burkina Faso and northern Nigeria. This region was home to three great African empires that ruled one after another: Ghana, Mali and Songhai.

What features did the Western Sudan empires share?

These three empires shared several important features:

1. Trans-Saharan trade: All three empires became powerful by controlling the valuable trade routes across the Sahara Desert that connected West Africa to North Africa and beyond.
2. Gold and salt: The most important trade goods were gold (from forests in the south) and salt (from mines in the Sahara). West Africa had plenty of gold but needed salt, while North Africa needed gold but had plenty of salt.
3. Islamic influence: All three empires were influenced by Islam, which came to the region through Muslim traders from North Africa.
4. Strong centralised rule: Each empire had powerful kings who controlled large territories and many different ethnic groups.
5. Succession pattern: Each empire rose, grew powerful and then declined, with the next empire taking its place as the dominant power in the region.

What was the Empire of Ghana (c. 700-1240 CE)?

Origins and location

• Ghana was not in the same place as the modern country of Ghana. It was located in what is now southeastern Mauritania and western Mali.
• The name “Ghana” meant “war chief” and was the title of the king.
• The people who founded Ghana were the Soninke people.
• The capital city was Koumbi Saleh.

Political organisation

• The kingdom was ruled by a king called the “Ghana” who was believed to have divine powers.
• The Ghana lived in a royal palace with many rooms and was surrounded by loyal officials.
• The empire was divided into provinces governed by appointed officials.
• The king had a large army with skilled horsemen.

Economy and trade

• Ghana became wealthy by controlling the trade routes between the gold-producing regions in the south and the salt mines in the Sahara.
• The kings of Ghana taxed goods coming into and leaving their territory.
• They also controlled the gold supply, making it more valuable.
• Besides gold and salt, traders exchanged copper, cloth, dates and other goods.
• Ghana had skilled craftspeople who made pottery, leather goods and iron tools.

Religion and culture

• The kings and common people of Ghana originally practised traditional African religions.
• Muslim traders brought Islam to Ghana, and a separate Muslim quarter was built in Koumbi Saleh.
• The kings of Ghana never converted to Islam but allowed Muslims to serve as officials and advisers.
• The Soninke people had rich oral traditions, music and art.

Decline of Ghana

• Around 1054, a group called the Almoravids (Muslim Berbers from the north) attacked Ghana.
• The empire was weakened by these attacks and by civil wars.
• Climate change brought drought to the region, making farming difficult.
• Trade routes began to shift away from Ghana’s territory.
• By 1240, Ghana had lost its power and was absorbed into the rising Mali Empire.

What was the Mali Empire (c. 1230-1600 CE)?

Origins and rise

• Mali was founded by the Mandinka (or Malinke) people, led by the Keita clan.
• Sundiata Keita, also known as the “Lion King”, defeated the kingdom of Sosso (which had conquered Ghana) at the Battle of Kirina in 1235 and established the Mali Empire.
• Sundiata’s story is told in the Epic of Sundiata, a famous oral tradition still performed by griots (storytellers) today.

Political organisation

• The emperor (called “Mansa”) ruled with the help of a council of ministers.
• The empire was divided into provinces ruled by governors who were usually relatives of the Mansa.
• Mali had a strong army with cavalry (soldiers on horseback) and infantry (soldiers on foot).
• At its height, Mali controlled a vast territory including parts of modern Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Mauritania, Mali and Niger.

Who was Mansa Musa?

• The most famous ruler of Mali was Mansa Musa I (1312-1337).
• In 1324, Mansa Musa made a famous pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca, bringing so much gold that he caused inflation in the cities he visited.
• Mansa Musa built many mosques, including the famous Djinguereber Mosque in Timbuktu.
• He sent scholars to study in Morocco and brought back scholars and architects to Mali.
• Under Mansa Musa, Timbuktu became a famous centre of Islamic learning with universities and libraries.

Economy and trade

• Like Ghana, Mali controlled the trans-Saharan trade routes.
• Mali expanded trade even further, establishing connections with Egypt, Europe and the Middle East.
• Gold, salt, copper, ivory and slaves were important trade goods.
• Mali also had rich agricultural lands where farmers grew rice, millet and other crops.

Religion and culture

• Mali’s rulers converted to Islam, and Mansa Musa promoted Islam throughout the empire.
• Many common people continued to practise traditional religions or mixed Islam with traditional beliefs.
• Mali had a rich culture with music, art and oral traditions.
• Griots (professional storytellers) preserved history and entertained the court.
• Architecture flourished, with distinctive mud-brick buildings like the Great Mosque of Djenné.

Decline of Mali

• After Mansa Musa’s death, weaker rulers followed.
• Provinces began to break away from central control.
• The Tuareg people captured Timbuktu in 1433.
• The Songhai people, once subjects of Mali, began to gain power.
• By the late 1400s, Mali had lost most of its territory and power.

What was the Songhai Empire (c. 1464-1591 CE)?

Origins and rise

• Songhai was centred along the middle Niger River, with its capital at Gao.
• The Songhai people had been under Mali’s control but gradually gained independence.
• Sunni Ali Ber (1464-1492) was the first great Songhai king, who built the empire by conquering many territories, including Timbuktu.
• He was a skilled military leader with a strong navy on the Niger River.

Political organisation

• Songhai was divided into provinces with governors appointed by the king.
• The empire had a complex bureaucracy with ministers responsible for finance, justice, agriculture and other areas.
• Both the military and the civil service were highly organised.
• At its height, Songhai was the largest empire in African history, covering parts of modern Nigeria, Niger, Mali, Senegal, Gambia, Guinea, Burkina Faso and Mauritania.

Muhammad Toure and Islamic influence

• After Sunni Ali’s death, one of his generals, Muhammad Toure, took power and took the title “Askia” (meaning “usurper”).
• Askia Muhammad (1493-1528) was a devout Muslim who strengthened Islam in the empire.
• He made a pilgrimage to Mecca, established Islamic courts and supported Islamic education.
• Under his rule, Timbuktu, Gao and Djenné became great centres of learning.
• The University of Sankore in Timbuktu attracted scholars from across Africa and the Muslim world.

Economy and trade

• Songhai controlled even more trade routes than Mali had.
• The empire became extremely wealthy from taxes on trade goods.
• Songhai also had productive agriculture in the Niger River valley.
• Craft industries like weaving, leatherworking and metalworking flourished.
• The empire traded with North Africa, Europe and Asia.

Religion and culture

• Islam was the official religion, especially in the cities.
• Islamic scholarship flourished, and libraries held thousands of books.
• Traditional religions remained strong in rural areas.
• Songhai had a rich musical tradition, including the ancestor of the modern guitar.
• Architecture, calligraphy and other arts were highly developed.

Decline and fall of Songhai

• After Askia Muhammad, weaker rulers followed, and internal conflicts weakened the empire.
• In 1591, the Sultan of Morocco sent an army equipped with firearms across the Sahara.
• At the Battle of Tondibi, the Moroccan army defeated the larger Songhai forces because the Songhai did not have guns.
• The Moroccans captured the major cities, including Timbuktu and Gao.
• The Songhai Empire collapsed, and no new large empire arose to take its place.

What was the legacy of the Western Sudan empires?

Political legacy

• These empires showed that Africans could build large, complex states with sophisticated governments.
• They established traditions of statecraft that influenced later African kingdoms.
• Their borders and political systems influenced colonial and post-colonial states.

Economic legacy

• Trans-Saharan trade routes established by these empires remained important until the colonial era.
• Trade networks connected West Africa to global commerce.
• Agricultural and craft techniques developed during these empires continued for centuries.

Cultural legacy

• Islam became firmly established in West Africa through these empires.
• Centres of learning like Timbuktu preserved knowledge and created new scholarship.
• Artistic traditions in music, storytelling and visual arts continue today.
• The oral traditions of the griots preserved the history of these empires.

Historical significance

• These empires disprove the myth that Africa had no history or civilisation before Europeans arrived.
• They were known and respected internationally during their time.
• They developed unique systems that combined Islamic and African traditions.
• They controlled trade of great value and influenced economies across multiple continents.
• Their achievements in architecture, scholarship and governance were remarkable for their time.

How do Ghana, Mali and Songhai compare?

Similarities

• All three empires controlled trans-Saharan trade routes.
• All were influenced by Islam to varying degrees.
• All had strong central governments with provincial administration.
• All were based on the power and charisma of strong rulers.
• All were multiethnic empires that included many different peoples.

Differences

• Ghana’s rulers never converted to Islam, while Mali and Songhai became Muslim states.
• Ghana was smaller than the later empires in territory.
• Mali reached its peak earlier than Songhai and was known for its gold wealth.
• Songhai had a more complex administrative system than the earlier empires.
• Songhai faced a new threat, firearms, that the earlier empires did not have to deal with.

Evaluation

1. Where was Western Sudan, and how is it different from the modern country called Sudan?
2. State three features common to the empires of Ghana, Mali and Songhai.
3. Give three reasons for the decline of Ghana.
4. Describe the achievements of Mansa Musa.
5. Explain how Songhai was defeated at the Battle of Tondibi.

Assignment

1. Write short notes on Sundiata Keita and Askia Muhammad.
2. State four differences between the Ghana Empire and the Songhai Empire.