The Evolution of the Nigerian State: The History of Nigeria to the Advent of the British – JSS3 Nigerian History Lesson Note (Second Term)

The evolution of the Nigerian state is the process by which many separate kingdoms, empires, city-states and communities developed before the British joined them into one country.

Behavioural objectives

1. Name the early civilisations that existed in Nigeria before British rule.
2. Describe the main kingdoms and empires of the north, the forest zone and the coast.
3. Explain the difference between centralised and decentralised political systems in pre-colonial Nigeria.
4. Describe the economic activities of pre-colonial Nigerian societies.
5. Outline the religious, cultural and social features of pre-colonial Nigerian societies.

What was Nigeria like before the British arrived?

Before British rule, Nigeria was not one country but a land of many independent states and communities.

• Many peoples: kingdoms, empires, city-states and village groups lived side by side.
• Own systems: each had its own government, culture, religion and way of life.
• Wide contact: the societies traded with one another and with lands across the Sahara.
• Why we study them: they show how Nigeria’s peoples developed before colonial rule joined them.

What early civilisations existed in Nigeria?

Three early civilisations in Nigeria are the Nok culture, the Ife civilisation and Igbo-Ukwu.

• Nok culture: lived in central Nigeria (around present-day Kaduna and Plateau states) from about 1000 BCE to 500 CE. Known for terracotta sculptures and early iron smelting in West Africa.
• Ife civilisation: people had settled at Ile-Ife by about 350 BCE. Known for naturalistic bronze and terracotta heads.
• Igbo-Ukwu: sites in present-day Anambra State date to about the 9th century CE. Known for elaborate bronze artefacts and trade links.

What were the early trade networks?

Early trade networks were the routes and markets through which communities in Nigeria exchanged goods long before Europeans arrived.

• Trans-Saharan trade: routes across the Sahara linked West Africa to North Africa and the Middle East. Gold, salt, textiles and leather goods were traded.
• Local trade: rivers such as the Niger carried goods between inland and coastal communities.
• Trade centres: market towns grew at places where goods from different regions were exchanged.
• Wider effect: trade also spread ideas, skills and religions.

What were the major kingdoms and empires before British rule?

The major pre-colonial states fall into three groups: northern states, forest zone kingdoms and coastal city-states.

Which kingdoms and empires existed in the north?

The main northern states were Kanem-Bornu, the Hausa states and the Sokoto Caliphate.

Kanem-Bornu Empire (9th to 19th centuries)

Kanem-Bornu was one of Africa’s longest-lasting empires, centred around Lake Chad.

• Origins: it began as the Kanem Empire, east of Lake Chad, around the 9th century. Bornu, in north-east Nigeria, became its later centre.
• Religion: Islam was adopted in the 11th century under Mai (King) Hummay.
• Government: the Sayfawa dynasty ruled for centuries.
• Economy: it controlled trans-Saharan routes and traded in salt, livestock and slaves.
• Military: a strong cavalry helped to extend and defend its land.
• Decline: drought, shifting trade routes and internal conflicts weakened it in the 18th and 19th centuries.

Hausa states (11th to 19th centuries)

The Hausa states were a group of independent city-states in northern Nigeria, together called Hausaland.

• Major city-states: Kano, Katsina, Zazzau (Zaria), Gobir, Daura, Biram and Rano.
• Government: each city-state had its own ruler, the Sarki, who governed with councillors.
• Economy: trans-Saharan trade, leatherwork, weaving and dyeing.
• Religion: Islam spread gradually, alongside traditional beliefs.
• Architecture: mud-brick buildings with decorative patterns.

Sokoto Caliphate (1804 to 1903)

The Sokoto Caliphate was one of the largest states in 19th-century Africa, founded after the 1804 jihad of Usman dan Fodio.

• Origins: Usman dan Fodio led a jihad (holy war) against Hausa rulers whom he accused of practising a corrupted form of Islam.
• Territory: it covered most of northern Nigeria and parts of present-day Niger and northern Cameroon.
• Government: it was divided into emirates. Each emir was loyal to the Sultan of Sokoto.
• Economy: agriculture, crafts and trade.
• Education: Islamic schools and scholarship grew strongly.
• End: the British conquered it in 1903.

Which kingdoms existed in the forest zone?

The main forest zone states were the Benin Kingdom, the Oyo Empire and the Nri Kingdom.

Benin Kingdom (13th to 19th centuries)

The Benin Kingdom was a powerful forest state in southern Nigeria, ruled by an Oba.

• Origins: it emerged around the 13th century.
• Golden age: under Oba Ewuare the Great (15th century), Benin grew in size and art.
• Government: the Oba was seen as divine. Chiefs, palace officials and guilds helped him rule.
• Art: bronze plaques, sculptures and ivory carvings.
• Trade: from the 15th century Benin traded ivory, pepper and slaves for European goods.
• End: the British conquered Benin in 1897 in a punitive expedition. Thousands of artefacts were looted.

Oyo Empire (about the 17th to 19th centuries)

The Oyo Empire was a powerful Yoruba state in south-western Nigeria, ruled by the Alaafin.

• Origins: Yoruba civilisation at Ile-Ife is much older. Oyo rose to great power in the 17th century.
• Government: the Oyo Mesi, a council of chiefs, checked the power of the Alaafin.
• Military: a strong cavalry helped Oyo to expand.
• Economy: control of trade routes and trade in goods, including slaves.
• Culture: Oyo spread Yoruba culture, religion and political practices over a wide area.
• Decline: internal conflicts, rebellions by provinces and the breakaway of Ilorin weakened it in the 19th century.

Nri Kingdom (about the 10th to the 20th century)

The Nri Kingdom was one of the oldest kingdoms in Nigeria, in present-day south-eastern Nigeria.

• Origins: Nri tradition traces its beginning to around 900 CE.
• Government: the Eze Nri held both political and religious authority.
• Influence: Nri was known for religious influence, not military power.
• Culture: it helped to spread Igbo cultural, religious and political ideas.
• Economy: trade and agriculture.
• Decline: its influence faded with European contact and British colonisation.

Which city-states existed on the coast?

The main coastal states were the Calabar city-states and the Niger Delta states of Nembe, Bonny and Opobo.

Calabar city-states

• Towns: Duke Town and Creek Town, in south-eastern Nigeria.
• Government: trading houses and secret societies such as the Ekpe society.
• Economy: trade with Europeans in slaves, palm oil and ivory.
• Culture: Nsibidi, a writing system that existed before European contact.

Nembe, Bonny and Opobo

• Location: trading states in the Niger Delta. Nembe and Bonny are older. Opobo was founded in 1870.
• Government: monarchs ruled with councils of chiefs.
• Economy: trade with Europeans, first in slaves and later in palm oil.
• Culture: local traditions mixed with ideas adopted through trade.

How were pre-colonial Nigerian societies governed?

Pre-colonial societies used two main political systems: centralised and decentralised.

• Centralised system: power is held by a king or ruler at the top, with officials below him. Examples are Benin, Oyo and the Hausa states.
• Decentralised system: power is shared among villages, age grades, councils or societies, with no single king over all. Examples are many Igbo communities.

What were the features of centralised monarchies?

• Divine kingship: in Benin the Oba was seen as divine and had religious duties.
• Checks and balances: in Oyo, the Oyo Mesi could force a tyrannical Alaafin to commit suicide.
• Administration: officials handled tax collection, military affairs and justice.

What were the features of decentralised systems?

• Village democracies: in many Igbo communities, village assemblies made decisions. Adult males, and sometimes females, took part.
• Age grades: groups of people of similar age helped with governance, security and public works.
• Secret societies: the Ekpe society in the Cross River region had political, judicial and social roles.
• Title systems: people gained status by taking titles, which showed wealth, wisdom or other valued qualities.

How was justice carried out?

• Traditional courts: disputes were heard and settled by rulers, elders or councils.
• Oracles and divination: spiritual means were used to decide guilt where facts were unclear.
• Compensation: many cases ended with payment to the wronged person, to restore peace.
• Exile and ostracism: serious offenders could be sent away from the community, for a time or for good.

What were the economic activities of pre-colonial Nigeria?

Pre-colonial economies were based on farming, crafts and trade, suited to each region’s environment.

Agriculture

• Farming methods: communities used methods suited to their land, including ways of keeping soil fertile.
• Crops: yams, millet, sorghum, rice, vegetables and fruits.
• Livestock: cattle, sheep and goats in the north. Poultry in most regions.

Crafts and manufacturing

• Textiles: weaving was widespread. Kano was famous for cloth.
• Metalworking: blacksmiths made tools and weapons. Bronze casting was highly developed in Ife and Benin.
• Pottery: each region had its own styles.
• Wood carving: sculptures, masks and everyday objects.

Trade and commerce

• Local markets: regular markets let people exchange goods from different zones.
• Long-distance trade: traders moved goods over long routes between distant communities.
• Currency: cowrie shells, metal rods and cloth were used as money.
• Trading associations: merchant guilds helped to organise and regulate trade.

What were the religious and cultural systems of pre-colonial Nigeria?

Pre-colonial religion and culture were varied and shaped every part of daily life.

What were the features of traditional religion?

• Supreme Being: most societies believed in one creator, often seen as distant from daily life.
• Lesser deities: spirits or minor gods linked to rivers, forests or mountains, and involved in human affairs.
• Ancestor veneration: the dead were believed to influence the living and were given respect and offerings.
• Divination: methods used to learn the will of spiritual beings.

How did Islam spread?

Islam began to influence Nigerian societies from about the 11th century.

• Introduction: it came mainly through peaceful trade contacts across the Sahara.
• Adoption by rulers: ruling classes often accepted it first, while common people kept traditional practices longer.
• Blended practices: in many areas Islamic and traditional practices mixed.
• Islamic education: centres of learning grew in the north and produced scholars.

What were the artistic and cultural expressions?

• Oral traditions: history, law and religion were passed on through myths, legends, proverbs and songs.
• Music and dance: each region had its own instruments, rhythms and dances.
• Visual arts: examples are Nok terracottas, Benin bronzes and Igbo mbari houses.
• Architecture: buildings were designed with local materials and climate in mind.

How were pre-colonial Nigerian societies organised socially?

Social organisation in pre-colonial Nigeria was built on the family, kinship and different levels of status.

Family and kinship

• Extended family: the basic social unit, with several generations living together.
• Lineage: descent was traced through the father (patrilineal) or the mother (matrilineal).
• Marriage: it joined families and lineages, not only two people. Many men had more than one wife.

Social stratification

• Nobility and commoners: centralised states separated ruling families from ordinary people.
• Wealth-based status: in many communities, people rose in rank by gaining wealth.
• Slavery: slavery and servitude existed, but often differed from the chattel slavery later practised in the Americas.
• Age-based status: respect and authority grew with age.

Evaluation

1. Name any three early civilisations in Nigeria and state one thing each is known for.
2. Who led the jihad of 1804, and how was the Sokoto Caliphate organised?
3. Explain how the Oyo Mesi limited the power of the Alaafin.
4. Describe how decisions were made in many Igbo communities.
5. State three forms of currency used in pre-colonial trade.

Assignment

Choose one of the Benin Kingdom, the Oyo Empire or the Nri Kingdom. Write a short account of its origins, political structure, economy and decline.