Factors Responsible For The Decline Of Great Empires In Western Sudan SS2 Nigerian History Lesson Note

The Western Sudan region of Africa was home to several powerful empires that rose and fell between approximately 700 CE and 1600 CE. These included the Ghana Empire (c. 700-1240), the Mali Empire (c. 1230-1600), and the Songhai Empire (c. 1464-1591). These empires controlled vast territories, dominated trade routes, and built impressive civilizations. However, they eventually declined and collapsed. This lesson explores the various factors that led to the downfall of these once-mighty African empires.

Internal Factors That Caused Decline

Succession Problems

One of the biggest internal problems that weakened these empires was trouble with leadership succession:

• Lack of Clear Rules: Many empires did not have clear rules about who should become the next ruler when a king died.
• Civil Wars: Without clear succession rules, different princes and royal family members often fought for the throne.
• Example from Mali: After Mansa Musa’s death, fights over who should rule weakened the Mali Empire.
• Example from Songhai: After Askia Muhammad died, his sons fought each other for power, which divided the empire.
• Short Reigns: Some rulers only ruled for a short time before being overthrown, which created instability.

Size and Administrative Problems

The empires’ large size created difficulties in governing effectively:

• Communication Challenges: It took weeks for messages to travel from the capital to distant provinces.
• Weak Control: Central governments couldn’t always control far-away regions effectively.
• Rebellious Provinces: Distant provinces often broke away or stopped paying taxes to the central government.
• Example from Mali: Provinces like Gao (which later became the Songhai Empire) broke away when Mali became weak.
• Stretched Resources: Large empires needed many soldiers and officials, which was expensive to maintain.

Economic Problems

Economic difficulties contributed to imperial decline:

• Dependence on Trade: The empires relied heavily on taxing trade, making them vulnerable to trade disruptions.
• Corruption: Government officials sometimes stole tax money, reducing funds available to the central government.
• Overtaxation: Some rulers taxed people too heavily, causing resentment and rebellion.
• Resource Depletion: In some areas, gold mines produced less gold over time, reducing wealth.
• Example from Ghana: When gold production declined, the empire had less wealth to support its government.

Political Corruption and Tyranny

Poor leadership and governance undermined imperial authority:

• Corrupt Officials: When officials became corrupt, people lost trust in the government.
• Tyrannical Rulers: Some kings became cruel, causing people to rebel against them.
• Weakened Loyalty: When rulers were seen as unjust, people became less willing to fight for the empire.
• Court Intrigues: Plots and schemes within royal courts sometimes led to instability.
• Example from Songhai: Some later rulers were less capable than Askia Muhammad, leading to poorer governance.

External Factors That Caused Decline

Invasions and Military Threats

Foreign invasions were often the final blow to weakened empires:

• Almoravid Invasion: The Almoravids (North African Muslims) attacked and weakened the Ghana Empire around 1076 CE.
• Moroccan Invasion: In 1591, Morocco sent an army with guns that defeated the Songhai Empire at the Battle of Tondibi.
• Technological Disadvantage: African armies often lacked the firearms that North African and European armies had.
• Example from Songhai: The Moroccan army had guns, while Songhai soldiers had traditional weapons, giving Morocco a decisive advantage.
• Neighboring States: Rising neighboring kingdoms sometimes attacked and took territory from declining empires.

Shifts in Trade Routes

Changes in trade patterns undermined economic foundations:

• New Sea Routes: When Europeans began sailing directly to West Africa in the 1400s, they bypassed some inland trade routes.
• Loss of Trade Monopoly: Empires lost control over trade when merchants found alternative routes.
• Competition: Rival states competed for control of valuable trade routes.
• Example from Mali: As sea trade with Europeans increased, Mali’s control of trans-Saharan trade became less valuable.
• Redirected Caravans: Political instability sometimes caused traders to avoid certain areas, taking their business elsewhere.

Climate Change and Environmental Factors

Environmental changes had significant impacts:

• Drought and Desertification: The Sahara Desert grew larger over time, affecting agriculture and trade routes.
• Drought Periods: Historical records show several major droughts in West Africa between 1100-1500 CE.
• Famine: Crop failures led to food shortages and population decline in some areas.
• Overuse of Land: In some regions, intensive farming and grazing led to soil erosion and reduced fertility.
• Example from Ghana: Some scholars believe that climate change contributed to Ghana’s decline by making agriculture more difficult.

Disease Outbreaks

Epidemics undermined population and stability:

• Bubonic Plague: The Black Death reached parts of West Africa in the 14th century through trade routes.
• Other Diseases: Smallpox, measles, and other diseases spread through trade networks.
• Population Loss: Disease outbreaks reduced population, affecting tax collection and military strength.
• Disrupted Trade: Fear of disease sometimes interrupted trade as merchants avoided affected areas.
• Leadership Losses: Important leaders sometimes died from disease, creating succession crises.

Case Studies of Empire Decline

The Decline of Ghana (c. 1100-1240)

The Ghana Empire’s fall involved multiple factors:

• Almoravid Invasion: North African Muslims attacked Ghana around 1076, weakening its power.
• Loss of Trade Control: Ghana lost control of gold-salt trade routes.
• Internal Rebellions: Subject peoples took advantage of Ghana’s weakness to break away.
• Environmental Changes: Some evidence suggests drought affected the region.
• Rise of Rival States: The Kingdom of Sosso and other states took Ghana’s former territories.
• Final Absorption: By 1240, Ghana had been absorbed into the rising Mali Empire.

The Decline of Mali (c. 1400-1600)

The Mali Empire’s power faded gradually:

• Succession Problems: After Mansa Musa, weak rulers and succession disputes weakened central authority.
• Provincial Rebellions: Provinces like Gao, Songhai, and Mossi broke away from Mali control.
• Loss of Trade Cities: Mali lost control of important cities like Timbuktu, Gao, and Djenné.
• Reduced Gold Revenue: Changes in trade patterns reduced Mali’s wealth from gold.
• Tuareg Attacks: Tuareg nomads captured Timbuktu in 1433.
• The Rise of Songhai: As Mali weakened, Songhai took many of its territories.
• Gradual Fading: Rather than a sudden collapse, Mali declined over about 200 years.

The Fall of Songhai (1591)

The Songhai Empire’s end was more sudden:

• Moroccan Invasion: In 1591, the Sultan of Morocco sent an army with firearms across the Sahara.
• Battle of Tondibi: On March 13, 1591, Moroccan forces with guns defeated the larger Songhai army.
• Internal Weaknesses: Succession disputes had already weakened Songhai before the invasion.
• Technological Gap: Songhai forces lacked firearms to match Moroccan weapons.
• Occupation of Cities: Moroccans captured Gao, Timbuktu, and other major cities.
• Fragmentation: After the defeat, Songhai broke into smaller kingdoms that fought each other.
• No Successor Empire: Unlike previous empires, no new large empire arose to replace Songhai.

Comparing Common Factors Across Empires

Common Internal Factors

Several internal problems affected all the empires:

• All empires suffered from succession disputes at critical times
• All struggled to control distant provinces as they grew larger
• All faced rebellions from subject peoples wanting independence
• All experienced periods of poor or corrupt leadership
• All had difficulty maintaining large standing armies

Common External Factors

External pressures also showed patterns:

• All eventually faced more technologically advanced enemies
• All were affected by shifts in trade patterns
• All faced competition from rising neighboring states
• All were vulnerable to environmental changes
• All were part of a cycle where empires rose, fell, and were replaced

Long-Term Consequences

Political Fragmentation

After these empires fell, the region changed politically:

• Large centralized states were replaced by smaller kingdoms
• Political power became more localized
• No single power controlled trans-Saharan trade
• Areas that were once united became divided
• This fragmentation eventually made it easier for European colonial powers to conquer the region

Economic Shifts

Trade and economic patterns changed:

• Trans-Saharan trade declined in importance
• Coastal trade with Europeans increased
• Gold production remained important but was less centrally controlled
• New crops and trade goods were introduced
• Economic networks became more diverse and less centralized

Cultural Continuity Despite Political Changes

Despite political collapses, many cultural elements survived:

• Islam remained strong and continued to spread
• Educational institutions like those in Timbuktu continued to function
• Artistic traditions and crafts continued
• Oral histories preserved memories of the great empires
• Social structures and traditional practices remained important.