Non-Centralized States – The Tiv JSS2 Nigerian History Lesson Note

 Non centralized states: The Tiv

The Tiv people represent one of Nigeria’s most fascinating examples of a non-centralized political system that flourished in pre-colonial times. Located primarily in what is now Benue State in the Middle Belt region of Nigeria, with some populations extending into neighboring Taraba, Nasarawa, and Plateau states, the Tiv developed and maintained a sophisticated system of governance without kings or centralized authority figures. Their society demonstrates how effective governance can exist without hierarchical political structures, providing valuable insights into alternative forms of political organization.

The Tiv are one of Nigeria’s larger ethnic groups, currently numbering over 6 million people. They speak Tiv language, which belongs to the Benue-Congo language family. Historically, the Tiv were primarily farmers who cultivated yams, millet, and sorghum, supplemented by hunting and fishing. Their economic activities, religious practices, social organization, and political system were all closely integrated, creating a cohesive society that successfully maintained its cultural identity and independence despite pressures from neighboring centralized states.

Historical Background of the Tiv People

Origins and Migration

According to Tiv oral traditions, they originated from a place called “Swem” in the Cameroon highlands. Their migration history suggests they moved gradually southward and westward until they reached their current location in the Benue Valley of central Nigeria. This migration likely occurred over several centuries, with the Tiv settling in their present homeland by the early 17th century.

During their migration, the Tiv encountered and sometimes conflicted with various groups, including the Jukun kingdom, which had a centralized political structure. These interactions with centralized states may have reinforced the Tiv preference for their non-centralized system, which proved effective in maintaining their independence and cultural integrity.

Early Contact with Europeans

The Tiv remained relatively isolated from direct European contact until the late 19th century. When British colonial officials first encountered Tiv society, they were puzzled by its lack of centralized authority figures like kings or chiefs with whom they could negotiate. This led to misunderstandings and difficulties as the British tried to implement their system of indirect rule, which relied on existing hierarchical structures that simply didn’t exist in Tiv society.

The Tiv Political System

Kinship as the Foundation of Political Organization

The most distinctive feature of Tiv political organization was its basis in kinship rather than territory. The entire Tiv society was organized according to a genealogical framework in which all Tiv traced their descent from a common ancestor named Tiv through various patrilineal lineages.

This genealogical system created a segmentary lineage structure with multiple levels:

• The smallest unit was the ingo (minimal lineage or extended family compound), consisting of a man, his wives, children, and possibly married sons and their families
• Several related ingo formed an ityo (minor lineage)
• Related ityo grouped together as ikyuryan (major lineages)
• The largest segments were the ipaven (maximal lineages), which were the primary divisions of Tiv society

What made this system unique was that political authority and decision-making operated at different levels of this segmentary structure depending on the issue at hand. Disputes or matters affecting only one extended family were handled within that unit, while issues affecting multiple lineages required coordination at higher levels of the structure.

The Tar Concept

While kinship formed the primary organizational principle, the Tiv also recognized territorial units called tar. A tar typically corresponded to a geographical area occupied by related lineages, creating an overlap between kinship and territory. The tar served as both a geographical location and a political community.

Each tar was essentially self-governing, with decisions made through the following mechanisms:

• Councils of elders representing the various lineages within the territory
• Public assemblies (ijir) where all adult males could participate in discussions
• Age-grade associations that took responsibility for implementing community decisions

The tar system allowed for effective governance of specific territories without creating a centralized authority structure that governed all Tiv people. Each tar managed its own affairs while recognizing its connection to the broader Tiv identity through shared ancestry, language, and customs.

Council of Elders

At the heart of Tiv political organization was the council of elders known as upyaven (singular: orya). These councils existed at various levels of the segmentary structure but were particularly important at the tar (territorial) level.

The characteristics of the council of elders included:

• Membership based primarily on age and wisdom rather than hereditary status
• Representation of all major lineages within the community
• Decision-making through discussion and consensus rather than majority voting
• Leadership roles that rotated or shifted based on the specific issues being addressed
• Meetings held in public spaces where community members could observe and sometimes participate

The elders derived their authority from their life experience, knowledge of Tiv customs and traditions, and ability to persuade rather than coerce. Their primary goal was maintaining harmony and resolving conflicts within the community.

Age-Grade System

The Tiv developed a complex age-grade system that complemented the lineage structure. Young men of approximately the same age formed cohorts that moved through life stages together, taking on different responsibilities at each stage:

• Younger age-grades (kumashon) performed community labor, learned hunting skills, and sometimes served as warriors when needed
• Middle-aged grades took responsibility for maintaining order, enforcing decisions, and protecting the community
• Senior grades (iorkor) provided wisdom and guidance, often serving on the council of elders

The age-grade system provided several important functions in Tiv society:

• Creating bonds between men across lineage lines, thus strengthening overall unity
• Distributing specific responsibilities across age groups rather than concentrating them in a ruling class
• Providing an organized structure for community defense and labor projects
• Ensuring a pathway for all men to eventually attain elder status and participate in governance

Ritual Experts

While the Tiv did not have centralized political authority, they did recognize individuals with special ritual knowledge and abilities. These included:

• Mbatsav (singular: mbatsav) – ritual specialists with knowledge of protective medicines and spiritual forces
• Akombo specialists who maintained and performed rituals associated with specific forces
• Diviners who could determine the causes of misfortune or illness

These ritual experts exercised significant influence in Tiv society but did not constitute a hereditary priesthood or ruling class. Their authority was limited to their specific domain of expertise and operated alongside rather than above the council of elders.

Social Control and Conflict Resolution

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms

Without centralized courts or police forces, the Tiv developed effective methods for resolving conflicts and maintaining social order:

• Ijir (public assembly) – the primary forum for addressing disputes that could not be resolved within families
• Mediation by elders who listened to all sides and sought consensus-based solutions
• Graduated approach that started with family-level mediation before escalating to lineage or tar-level resolution
• Focus on reconciliation and restoration of harmony rather than punishment of offenders
• Use of oaths and ordeals in difficult cases where facts were disputed

The Tiv system emphasized transparency and public participation, with dispute resolution typically occurring in open spaces where community members could witness proceedings and sometimes contribute to discussions.

The Concept of Tsav

Central to understanding Tiv social control is the concept of tsav, sometimes translated as “witchcraft” but better understood as a form of spiritual power or energy. The Tiv believed that tsav could be used either positively to benefit the community or negatively to harm others.

Elders were thought to possess tsav, which gave them the wisdom and authority to govern effectively. However, they were expected to use this power for the common good. Anyone suspected of using tsav malevolently (becoming a “witch” or “sorcerer”) faced serious social sanctions.

This belief system created an effective check on power, as:

• Elders had to demonstrate that they used their influence for community benefit
• Unusual accumulation of wealth or power might raise suspicions of misuse of tsav
• Fear of being accused of witchcraft discouraged excessive individualism or exploitation
• The community could collectively sanction those who violated social norms

Exchange and Reciprocity

The Tiv maintained social order through complex systems of exchange and reciprocity that created bonds between individuals and groups:

• Exchange of gifts and services that created obligations between parties
• Marriage alliances that connected different lineages
• Communal labor projects where groups would help each other with farming or building
• Sharing of resources during times of hardship or celebration

These exchange relationships helped prevent conflicts by creating networks of mutual obligation and interdependence throughout Tiv society.

Economic Organization

Land Tenure System

The Tiv land tenure system reflected their non-centralized political structure:

• Land was held communally by lineages rather than individually owned
• Rights to use land were distributed among lineage members by elders
• New land could be cleared and claimed by any Tiv who needed it (until population pressure made land scarce)
• No central authority controlled land allocation or could dispossess people of their land

This system ensured that all Tiv had access to the resources they needed for survival while preventing the concentration of wealth and power that often accompanies private land ownership.

Division of Labor

The Tiv economy was based primarily on agriculture, with a clear division of labor:

• Men cleared land, built houses, hunted, and grew certain crops like yams
• Women cultivated other crops, processed food, made pottery, and traded in local markets
• Children assisted with age-appropriate tasks, learning skills through participation
• Specialized skills like blacksmithing, weaving, or carving were practiced by certain individuals but did not create rigid occupational classes

This economic system was integrated with the political structure, as economic activities were organized through the same lineage and age-grade systems that governed political life.

Cultural Identity and Social Cohesion

Shared Values and Worldview

Despite lacking centralized institutions, the Tiv maintained strong cultural cohesion through:

• A common language with relatively minor dialectical variations
• Shared origin stories and migration history that connected all Tiv to a common ancestor
• Consistent moral and ethical values emphasized in proverbs and oral traditions
• Distinctive cultural practices that differentiated Tiv from neighboring groups
• Common religious beliefs focused on a creator god (Aondo) and various spiritual forces

The Akombo System

The Tiv religious system, centered around ritual objects and forces called akombo, played an important role in maintaining social cohesion. Different akombo governed various aspects of life from fertility to health to social relationships. The specialists who maintained these ritual objects helped enforce social norms by interpreting misfortune as the result of violating these norms.

Oral Traditions and Social Memory

Without written records, the Tiv relied on oral traditions to preserve their history, genealogy, and cultural knowledge:

• Elders were responsible for maintaining accurate knowledge of lineage relationships
• Stories, songs, and proverbs transmitted values and historical information
• Public discussions frequently referenced past events and precedents
• Rituals and ceremonies reinforced cultural identity and collective memory

These oral traditions played a crucial role in maintaining the segmentary lineage system by preserving knowledge of how different groups were related to each other.

Challenges and Adaptation

Relations with Neighboring States

The Tiv non-centralized system faced challenges from neighboring centralized states like the Jukun kingdom, which periodically attempted to extend control over Tiv territory. The Tiv responded with several adaptive strategies:

• Military resistance organized through age-grades and lineage groups
• Tactical retreat and migration when necessary
• Selective adoption of useful cultural elements from neighbors while maintaining their core political system
• Trading relationships that created mutual benefits without political subordination

The flexibility of the segmentary lineage system allowed the Tiv to expand, contract, or shift their settlements in response to external pressures without compromising their fundamental political organization.

Response to Colonial Rule

The British colonial encounter presented the most significant challenge to the Tiv political system. Unable to comprehend or work with a society lacking chiefs or kings, the British attempted to create artificial “warrant chiefs” to implement indirect rule.

The Tiv response included:

• Resistance to appointed chiefs who lacked traditional legitimacy
• Continued operation of the lineage-based governance system alongside colonial structures
• Adaptation of age-grade organizations to new circumstances
• Strategic engagement with colonial education and economic opportunities while maintaining cultural identity

While colonial rule and subsequent independence fundamentally altered traditional Tiv political structures, elements of the non-centralized system continue to influence Tiv social organization today.

Significance and Legacy

Theoretical Importance

The Tiv political system has been extensively studied by anthropologists and political scientists because it demonstrates:

• How effective governance can exist without centralized authority
• The role of kinship in political organization
• How social control can be maintained without formal legal institutions
• Alternatives to territorial-based political systems

The segmentary lineage system of the Tiv, first analyzed in depth by British anthropologist Paul Bohannan in the 1950s, has become a classic example in political anthropology of non-centralized political organization.

Contemporary Relevance

Although modern Tiv society has been integrated into Nigeria’s federal system with formal government structures, elements of the traditional non-centralized system continue to influence Tiv life:

• Lineage relationships remain important in social organization
• Councils of elders still play significant roles in local conflict resolution
• Community decision-making often incorporates consensus-building approaches from traditional practice
• Cultural identity remains strong despite political incorporation into larger structures

The traditional values of the Tiv system—emphasizing consultation, consensus, and community harmony—continue to shape Tiv approaches to governance and conflict resolution.

Conclusion

The Tiv example demonstrates that effective governance does not necessarily require centralized authority or hierarchical structures. Through their segmentary lineage system, councils of elders, age-grades, and public assemblies, the Tiv maintained order, resolved conflicts, defended their territory, and preserved their cultural identity for centuries without kings or centralized bureaucracy.

This non-centralized system offered several advantages, including:

• Flexibility and adaptability to changing circumstances
• Broad participation in decision-making processes
• Effective checks against the accumulation and abuse of power
• Integration of political, economic, and religious aspects of life
• Strong social cohesion without coercive central authority

The study of the Tiv political system enriches our understanding of the diversity of political traditions in pre-colonial Nigeria and challenges assumptions that centralized authority is necessary for effective governance. It reminds us that indigenous African societies developed sophisticated political systems adapted to their specific social and environmental contexts, many of which contained democratic elements that preceded European contact.

While modern nation-states have largely replaced traditional political systems, understanding these indigenous governance models provides valuable perspectives on alternative approaches to organization, conflict resolution, and social cohesion that may still have relevance in contemporary contexts