Inter-Relationships Of Some Centres Of Civilisation In Pre-Colonial Nigeria JSS2 Nigerian History Lesson Note

 Inter-relationships of some centres of civilisation in pre-colonial Nigeria

Long before Europeans came to what is now Nigeria, the region was home to many advanced societies. These societies weren’t isolated from each other – they connected through trade, politics, religion, marriage, and sometimes war. These connections helped ideas, goods, and practices spread across the region, allowing different groups to influence each other in important ways.

Pre-colonial Nigeria had several major centers of civilization, including the Yoruba kingdoms (like Oyo and Ife), the Benin Empire, the Hausa city-states, the Kanem-Bornu Empire, the Igbo communities, the Ibibio societies, and the Niger Delta city-states. Each developed their own unique cultures, political systems, and technologies, but they all maintained relationships with their neighbors.

This lesson explores how these different centers of civilization connected with each other, showing that Nigeria’s cultural and political landscape was complex and interconnected long before colonial rule. These relationships shaped the development of these societies and created patterns of interaction that sometimes continue to the present day.

The Yoruba Kingdoms and Benin Empire

Historical Background

The Yoruba people created several important kingdoms in southwestern Nigeria, with Ile-Ife serving as their spiritual and cultural center. According to Yoruba tradition, Ife was where the deity Oduduwa descended from heaven to create the world and establish the first kingdom. Archaeological evidence shows Ife developed as an important urban center between the 8th and 10th centuries CE.

By the 15th century, the Oyo Empire had emerged as the dominant Yoruba kingdom, with its cavalry-based military giving it control over a large territory. Other important Yoruba kingdoms included Ijebu, Ketu, Sabe, Owu, and Ila.

To the southeast of Yorubaland, the Benin Empire (in present-day Edo State) became a powerful kingdom from the 13th century onwards. At its height in the 15th-17th centuries, Benin controlled much of what is now southwestern Nigeria and parts of present-day Benin Republic.

The Founding Connection: Oranmiyan

The most important historical link between the Yoruba kingdoms and Benin comes from the story of Oranmiyan, a prince from Ile-Ife who established a new dynasty in Benin. While historical accounts vary in details, the core narrative is consistent across traditions:

Around the 13th century, the people of Benin faced political challenges after the end of the previous Ogiso dynasty. They sent a delegation to the Ooni of Ife (the ruler of Ile-Ife) requesting a royal figure who could establish order and provide leadership. In response, the Ooni sent Prince Oranmiyan, a descendant of Oduduwa, to rule Benin.

According to tradition, Oranmiyan ruled in Benin for some time but eventually decided that the culture was too different from what he was accustomed to. Before returning to Yorubaland, he fathered a son named Eweka with a Benin woman of noble birth. This son became the first Oba (king) of the new dynasty that would rule Benin for centuries.

This dynastic connection established a permanent link between Ile-Ife and Benin that would influence many aspects of both societies. The new ruling family in Benin traced its legitimacy back to the sacred city of Ile-Ife, creating a lasting bond between the two centers.

Political Relationships

The connection to Ile-Ife provided important legitimacy to Benin’s royal dynasty:

• The Oba of Benin traced his ancestry to Oranmiyan and thus to the divine Oduduwa of Ile-Ife
• This divine origin story strengthened the Oba’s authority and elevated him above potential rivals
• Successive Obas maintained awareness of their Ife origins as part of their royal identity
• Certain coronation rituals in Benin referenced the Ife connection

Despite this origin connection, as Benin grew in power, it became fully independent in its governance. The relationship evolved from one of parent-child to one of mutual recognition between powerful states.

Over the centuries, Ile-Ife and Benin maintained diplomatic contacts:

• Royal messengers traveled between the kingdoms carrying information and gifts
• Representatives attended important ceremonies in each other’s capitals
• In times of crisis, one kingdom might seek counsel or support from the other
• Disputes were sometimes mediated through appeals to their shared heritage

The Oyo Empire also developed political relationships with Benin, though these were sometimes more competitive. Both powers sought to control trade routes and tributary states along their borders, occasionally leading to conflicts. However, they also recognized the benefits of peaceful relations and established diplomatic protocols to manage their interactions.

Cultural and Artistic Influences

The relationship between the Yoruba kingdoms and Benin had a profound impact on artistic traditions, particularly in bronze casting and royal symbolism:

• Benin adopted and adapted the sophisticated bronze casting techniques pioneered at Ife
• Early Benin bronze heads show strong stylistic similarities to Ife sculptures, though a distinctive Benin style later developed
• Royal regalia and symbols of authority in Benin included elements derived from Yoruba traditions
• Both centers produced brass/bronze commemorative heads of rulers, though with different artistic conventions
• The coral beads that became essential to royal attire in both kingdoms served as visual symbols of their connection

Religious concepts and practices also flowed between these centers:

• Certain deities were worshipped in both Yorubaland and Benin, though sometimes with different names or attributes
• Divination practices show similarities, though each developed unique aspects
• Royal ancestor worship became important in both centers
• Religious specialists sometimes traveled between the kingdoms to share knowledge

Trade and Economic Relations

Economic connections between the Yoruba kingdoms and Benin were maintained through established trade routes:

• Traders traveled between the kingdoms carrying specialized goods from each region
• Yoruba areas exported cloth, indigo dye, kola nuts, and agricultural products
• Benin traded ivory carvings, bronze works, and palm oil
• Both centers served as hubs in wider regional trade networks
• The exchange of luxury goods reinforced political relationships between elites

These trade connections helped spread ideas and innovations between the centers while contributing to the prosperity of both.

Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States

Historical Background

Kanem-Bornu was a powerful empire located in what is now northeastern Nigeria, parts of Niger, Chad, and Cameroon. It existed from around the 9th century until the 19th century, making it one of Africa’s longest-lasting empires. The empire began as the Kingdom of Kanem, east of Lake Chad, founded by the Kanuri people under the Sayfawa dynasty.

A major change came when King Humme Jilmi converted to Islam around 1085 CE. From then on, Kanem developed as an Islamic state with connections to North Africa and the Middle East. Around the 14th century, the rulers of Kanem were forced to move their capital westward to Bornu (west of Lake Chad) due to attacks from neighboring groups. After this move, the empire became known as Kanem-Bornu.

The Hausa people established a number of city-states across what is now northern Nigeria and southern Niger. Each state had its own ruler called a Sarki, but they shared the Hausa language and many cultural practices. According to tradition, these states were founded by the descendants of a hero named Bayajidda who came from the east (possibly from Kanem-Bornu).

The most powerful Hausa states included Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Gobir, and Daura. Like Kanem-Bornu, the Hausa States adopted Islam, though this happened more gradually between the 14th and 15th centuries.

Diplomatic and Political Connections

Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States maintained regular diplomatic contact:

• The Mai (ruler) of Bornu and the Hausa Sarkis exchanged messengers and gifts
• Letters written in Arabic were sent between courts
• Royal marriages sometimes connected the ruling families
• Political refugees from one state might seek shelter in another
• During conflicts, diplomats would travel to negotiate peace

The relationship between Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States was not always equal:

• For much of their history, Kanem-Bornu was the more powerful state
• At times, some Hausa States paid tribute to Kanem-Bornu
• Kanem-Bornu sometimes intervened in conflicts between Hausa States
• Hausa rulers might request military support from Kanem-Bornu against enemies
• The Mai of Bornu claimed a position of religious leadership that gave him influence in Hausaland

However, as the Hausa States grew stronger, especially Kano, the relationship became more balanced. By the 18th century, some Hausa States were powerful enough to resist Bornu’s influence, creating a more even political relationship.

Trans-Saharan Trade Network

Trade formed the strongest connection between Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa States:

• Kanem-Bornu controlled important trade routes to North Africa across the Sahara
• The Hausa States connected these routes to trading networks farther south and west
• Together, they formed part of a vast trading system that linked sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa, the Middle East, and indirectly with Europe and Asia
• Merchants traveled regularly between Bornu and the Hausa cities
• Market towns sprung up along the routes connecting these states

This trade was so important that special arrangements were made to protect merchants traveling between regions.

Many items moved through the trading networks:

• Salt from Saharan mines passed through Kanem-Bornu to the Hausa States
• Natron (a natural mineral used as medicine and for food preservation) came from Lake Chad
• Leather goods and textiles from Hausa cities like Kano were highly valued in Bornu
• Slaves captured from non-Muslim areas were traded northward
• Horses from North Africa passed through Bornu to the Hausa States
• Kola nuts from forests further south passed through Hausa cities on their way to Bornu
• Grains and dried fish were exchanged during times of local food shortage

These goods created economic interdependence between the regions, strengthening their relationship.

Religious and Cultural Exchanges

The spread of Islamic learning created strong cultural bonds:

• Scholars traveled between Bornu and the Hausa States to study and teach
• Books and manuscripts circulated among learned communities
• Students from Hausa cities sometimes went to study in Bornu, which had earlier connections to North African centers of learning
• Religious ideas and practices spread through these scholarly networks
• Debates about Islamic law and theology involved scholars from both regions

The spread of Arabic literacy influenced government in both regions:

• Official letters between states were written in Arabic
• Court record-keeping used similar methods
• Administrative titles and government structures showed mutual influence
• Islamic legal concepts were applied in both regions
• Arabic became the language of scholarship, diplomacy, and high culture

Common religious observances strengthened cultural ties:

• The major Islamic festivals like Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha were celebrated in similar ways
• The Friday congregational prayer became a central community event in both regions
• Religious calendars guided social and political life
• Islamic ethics influenced laws and social norms
• Traditional practices were modified to fit Islamic requirements in similar ways

These shared religious experiences created a sense of common identity among the Muslim populations of both regions, despite ethnic and political differences.

Military Relations

Military cooperation sometimes occurred between Kanem-Bornu and Hausa States:

• They might form alliances against common enemies
• Military technology and tactics were shared
• Cavalry warfare techniques spread between the regions
• Defensive strategies were sometimes coordinated
• Warning systems alerted neighboring states to approaching threats

Despite their connections, conflicts also occurred:

• Border disputes sometimes led to fighting
• Competition over control of trade routes caused tensions
• Stronger Hausa States occasionally resisted Bornu’s claims of superiority
• Kanem-Bornu sometimes intervened in conflicts between Hausa States, taking one side
• Raiding for slaves and cattle could lead to retaliatory actions

The Igbo and the Niger Delta City-States

Historical Background

The Igbo people lived in the forested areas of southeastern Nigeria for thousands of years. Unlike some other Nigerian groups, they didn’t create a centralized kingdom with a single ruler. Instead, they organized themselves through:

• Village democracies where all adult men could participate in decision-making
• Councils of elders who provided leadership based on age and wisdom
• Age-grade associations (groups of people of similar age) who performed community tasks
• Title societies that recognized achievement rather than birth
• Market networks that connected different communities

The Igbo are often described by the phrase “Igbo enwe eze” meaning “the Igbo have no king.” They governed themselves through group discussions and consensus rather than through commands from a ruler.

Along the coast and rivers of the Niger Delta, a different kind of society developed. Here, people built trading city-states ruled by kings or chiefs. The major city-states included:

• Bonny (also called Ibani)
• Kalabari (New Calabar)
• Nembe (Brass)
• Okrika
• Opobo (which formed later)
• Elem Kalabari (Old Calabar)

These city-states were built on islands and along waterways in the Niger Delta. Their location gave them control over trade routes between the interior and the ocean. Each city-state had its own government, but they shared similar cultures and often competed with each other for trade.

Trade Networks

The strongest connection between the Igbo and the Niger Delta city-states was trade. The geography of the region created natural trading partnerships:

• The Igbo lived in the forested interior and produced food and crafts
• The Niger Delta people controlled the waterways leading to the ocean
• Together they formed a trading system that connected the inland areas to the coast

This trade followed established routes:

• Rivers and creeks served as highways for canoes carrying goods
• Regular markets were held at points where inland paths met waterways
• Trading settlements grew at these meeting points

The trade network operated on a weekly or 4-day or 8-day market cycle, with different market centers active on different days. This allowed traders to visit multiple markets and move goods efficiently through the region.

Many different goods moved through this trading network:

From Igbo areas to the Delta:

• Agricultural products like yams, palm oil, and palm kernels
• Textiles, particularly the highly valued Akwete cloth
• Iron tools and weapons made by Awka smiths
• Wooden carvings and household items
• Pottery for storing and cooking food
• Livestock such as goats and chickens
• Medicinal herbs and plants

From the Delta to Igbo areas:

• Salt produced from seawater
• Fish and seafood (dried or smoked for preservation)
• Imported goods obtained from European traders (later period)
• Shells used for decoration and sometimes as currency
• Manilla (horseshoe-shaped pieces of metal used as currency)

As European ships began to visit the coast from the 16th century onward, the trading relationship became even more important. The Niger Delta city-states served as middlemen, controlling trade between Europeans on the coast and the Igbo in the interior.

Trading Practices and Partnerships

Special arrangements developed to support this trade:

• Trusted trading partnerships formed between Igbo and Delta merchants
• Credit systems allowed goods to be exchanged on promises of future payment
• Market regulations protected traders from different regions
• Trade disputes had special procedures for resolution
• Trading languages or pidgins developed to help people communicate

One important practice was the “trust” system, where Delta traders would advance European goods to Igbo partners, who would then bring back inland products. These relationships sometimes lasted for generations, with children inheriting their parents’ trading partners.

Political and Diplomatic Relationships

Despite their different political systems, the Igbo and Niger Delta peoples maintained regular diplomatic contacts:

• Representatives from trading communities visited each other
• Agreements were made about market rights and trade routes
• Disputes were settled through negotiation and sometimes ritual
• Neutral zones were established for inter-group meetings
• Messengers carried information between communities

When conflicts arose between Igbo and Delta communities, several methods were used to resolve them:

• Meetings between respected elders from both communities
• Oath-taking ceremonies at shrines respected by both groups
• Compensation payments for wrongs committed
• Market boycotts to pressure wrongdoers
• Appeals to oracles considered neutral and powerful

The famous Arochukwu oracle (Ibini Ukpabi) sometimes served as a final judge in disputes between communities from different ethnic groups, showing how religious institutions could transcend ethnic boundaries.

Cultural Exchanges

Religious ideas and practices moved between the groups:

• Powerful deities from one region might be adopted by the other
• Shrine priests traveled to perform rituals in different communities
• Divination systems spread across ethnic boundaries
• Similar masquerade traditions developed in both areas
• Religious festivals sometimes attracted visitors from neighboring ethnic groups

Marriage across ethnic lines created lasting connections:

• Traders sometimes married women from communities where they did business
• These marriages created family bonds that strengthened trading relationships
• Children of mixed marriages often became important intermediaries
• Extended family networks spread across ethnic boundaries
• Certain communities developed traditions of intermarriage

Art forms and creative expressions showed clear evidence of cultural exchange:

• Similar mask designs appeared in both regions
• Musical instruments and styles spread between communities
• Body decoration and personal adornment practices influenced each other
• Architectural features were sometimes borrowed
• Ceremonial regalia showed mixed influences

People living in the contact zones often spoke multiple languages:

• Traders typically learned enough of their partners’ languages to conduct business
• Border communities often became bilingual
• Special vocabularies developed for trade interactions
• Interpreters gained importance in facilitating communication
• Some individuals became known for their language abilities

The Atlantic Slave Trade Period

The growth of the Atlantic slave trade from the 16th to 19th centuries changed the relationship between the Igbo and Delta peoples:

• Human beings became the most valuable trade item
• Delta city-states grew wealthy and powerful as middlemen in the slave trade
• Some Igbo communities raided others to capture people for sale
• New trading networks developed focused on moving captives to the coast
• Power balances shifted as firearms became important trade goods

During this period, the Niger Delta city-states grew in power because they controlled access to European slave traders. Communities in the interior, including many Igbo areas, suffered from increased warfare and raiding.

Both Igbo and Delta communities developed various responses to the pressures of the slave trade:

• Defensive alliances formed to protect against slave raiders
• Some communities moved to more easily defended locations
• New religious practices emerged to protect against capture
• Alternative trade goods were emphasized by communities opposed to slaving
• Escaped slaves sometimes formed new communities in boundary areas

Despite the disruptions of the slave trade period, many of the traditional connections between Igbo and Delta communities continued, though often in changed forms.

The Igbo and Ibibio Relationship

Historical Background

The Igbo and Ibibio lived as neighbors, sharing a long border area where their territories met. The Ibibio people lived in the southeastern coastal region of Nigeria, in an area with forests, rivers, and access to the ocean. Like the Igbo, they developed a largely decentralized society:

• Village councils (Afe Isong) made up of family heads governed local affairs
• Age grades provided organization for community projects and defense
• Secret societies like Ekpe controlled social behavior and settled disputes
• Family and lineage played important roles in social organization
• Religious beliefs centered on Abasi Enyong (the sky god) and Abasi Isong (the earth goddess)

The Ibibio were traditionally farmers, fishermen, and traders. They grew yams, cocoyams, and various vegetables, and were known for their palm wine production. Ibibio communities were also skilled in crafts like wood carving, basket making, and pottery.

The border between Igbo and Ibibio wasn’t a clear line but a zone where communities from both groups lived near each other and interacted regularly:

• Some villages in the border areas had mixed populations
• Communities often understood both languages
• Markets in border zones attracted traders from both groups
• Farmlands sometimes overlapped, leading to both cooperation and occasional disputes
• Rivers and paths served as transportation routes connecting the regions

This shared border zone became an area of intensive cultural exchange, where ideas, practices, and people moved back and forth between the two societies.

Economic Interactions

Trade formed one of the strongest connections between Igbo and Ibibio communities:

• Regular markets were established along the borders between their territories
• Market days were scheduled so traders could visit multiple markets in a cycle
• Specialized goods from each region were exchanged
• Both groups participated in wider regional trade networks
• Women often played leading roles as traders in these markets

Many different items moved through the trading networks:

From Igbo areas to Ibibio:

• Iron tools and weapons made by Awka smiths
• Certain types of cloth and clothing
• Wooden carvings and household items
• Some specialized food crops
• Medicinal herbs from the forest regions

From Ibibio areas to Igbo:

• Fish and seafood (often dried or smoked)
• Salt from coastal salt-making operations
• Palm oil and palm wine
• Specific types of woven baskets and mats
• Pottery with distinctive Ibibio designs

Some communities specialized in trade between the two regions:

• Villages located on the borders often became trading centers
• Certain families developed reputations as trustworthy trading partners
• Some individuals became multilingual to facilitate trade
• Trading partnerships sometimes continued across generations
• Neutral market spaces were established where both groups felt comfortable

Social and Political Relationships

Despite generally peaceful relations, disputes sometimes arose between Igbo and Ibibio communities. Several methods developed to resolve these conflicts:

• Meetings between respected elders from both communities
• Oath-taking ceremonies at shrines respected by both groups
• Compensation payments for wrongs committed
• Joint councils to settle border or trade disputes
• Appeals to oracles considered neutral and powerful

The relationship between Igbo and Ibibio communities sometimes included military dimensions:

• Defensive alliances formed against common external threats
• Some communities exchanged military technology and techniques
• Border conflicts occasionally erupted over land or resources
• Neutral buffer zones were sometimes established between territories
• Military age grades might coordinate activities across ethnic boundaries

Intermarriage between Igbo and Ibibio people created lasting bonds:

• Cross-cultural marriages were common in border communities
• These marriages created family networks that spanned both societies
• Children of mixed marriages often became important cultural mediators
• Marriage ceremonies sometimes blended traditions from both cultures
• Extended family gatherings brought people from both groups together

Cultural Exchanges

Religious ideas and practices moved between the two societies:

• Powerful deities from one region were sometimes adopted by the other
• Similar masquerade traditions developed in both areas
• Divination systems showed mutual influences
• Shrine priests occasionally performed rituals for people from the other group
• Religious festivals sometimes attracted visitors from neighboring communities

For example, the Ekpe/Ekpo secret society, which combined social, political, and religious functions, was found in both Ibibio and some eastern Igbo communities, showing how important cultural institutions could cross ethnic boundaries.

The Igbo and Ibibio languages, while distinct, influenced each other through centuries of contact:

• People in border areas often became bilingual
• Certain words were borrowed between the languages
• Similar idioms and expressions developed
• Special trading vocabularies emerged for market interactions
• Names for new items or concepts sometimes spread from one language to the other

Art forms and craft techniques showed evidence of mutual influence:

• Similar mask designs appeared in both regions
• Pottery styles sometimes shared decorative elements
• Weaving and basket-making techniques spread across cultural boundaries
• Wood carving motifs showed some similarities
• Body decoration and personal adornment practices influenced each other

The long relationship between Igbo and Ibibio peoples created distinctive cultures in the border regions:

• Communities with mixed heritage developed unique identities
• Bilingualism became common in these areas
• Religious practices combined elements from both traditions
• Social customs reflected both heritages
• Some people identified with both groups or as a distinctive mixed community

The Yoruba and Nupe Relationship

Historical Background

The Nupe people live primarily in what is now Niger State and parts of Kwara and Kogi states in central Nigeria. They developed a centralized kingdom with their ruler known as the Etsu Nupe. Their homeland lies to the north of Yorubaland, along the Niger River.

Historical traditions suggest contact between the Yoruba and Nupe dates back many centuries. The relationship was complex, involving periods of conflict, alliance, and cultural exchange. The most significant interactions occurred with the northern Yoruba kingdoms like Oyo, which shared borders with Nupe territory.

Political and Military Relationships

The Oyo Empire and the Nupe Kingdom had a long history of political and military interaction:

• Periods of warfare occurred as both states sought to control territory and trade routes
• The Nupe conducted cavalry raids into northern Yoruba territories in the 16th-17th centuries
• The Oyo Empire eventually gained military superiority and forced the Nupe to pay tribute
• Diplomatic missions were exchanged during peaceful periods
• Buffer zones emerged where mixed settlements developed

An important episode occurred in the 16th century when Nupe forces under Tsoede (or Edegi) conducted successful raids deep into Yoruba territory, even threatening Old Oyo (Oyo-Ile). This prompted the Oyo Empire to reorganize its military, developing a powerful cavalry force that later turned the tide against the Nupe.

By the late 17th and 18th centuries, Oyo had established dominance, requiring tribute from the Nupe kingdom. However, this relationship wasn’t simply one of conqueror and conquered – complex diplomatic protocols developed to manage the relationship between the two states.

Trade and Economic Connections

Trade flourished between Yoruba and Nupe territories:

• The Niger River served as a major trade route connecting the regions
• Weekly markets along the border areas facilitated exchange
• Nupe traders brought goods from the northern savanna regions
• Yoruba merchants traded products from the forest zones
• Middlemen communities emerged that were fluent in both languages and cultures

Important trade goods included:

From Nupe to Yoruba:

• Cotton and cotton textiles
• Leather goods
• Brass and copper items
• Horses and livestock
• Kola nuts (which the Nupe obtained from further north)
• Shea butter
• Onions and other savanna crops

From Yoruba to Nupe:

• Palm oil and palm wine
• Forest products like kola nuts and herbs
• Iron implements
• Indigo-dyed cloth
• Carved wooden items
• Yams and forest crops

During the era of the trans-Atlantic slave trade, both Yoruba and Nupe territories were affected, though in different ways. Some captives taken in conflicts between the two groups ended up in the Atlantic slave trade system.

Cultural Exchanges

Despite political conflicts, significant cultural exchange occurred between the Yoruba and Nupe:

• Religious concepts traveled in both directions
• Artistic styles influenced each other, particularly in textiles and brass work
• Musical instruments and performance styles showed mutual influence
• Architectural features were sometimes adopted across cultural lines
• Food preparation techniques and dishes were exchanged

In religious terms, certain deities and spiritual concepts showed clear evidence of cross-cultural adoption. The thundergod Shango/Sango, important in Yoruba religion, shares some characteristics with the Nupe deity Sokogba, suggesting possible historical connections.

Both societies practiced forms of Islam by the 18th-19th centuries, though this was overlaid on traditional religious practices. Islamic scholars sometimes traveled between the regions, spreading religious knowledge and practices.

Linguistic and Population Exchange

The long interaction between Yoruba and Nupe resulted in linguistic borrowing:

• Trade terminology showed particular evidence of exchange
• Religious vocabulary sometimes crossed linguistic boundaries
• Place names in border regions often had meanings in both languages
• Some communities developed distinctive dialects showing influence from both languages

Population movement also occurred in both directions:

• War captives from both sides were incorporated into the opposing society
• Traders sometimes established permanent communities in each other’s territory
• Artisans with specialized skills might be invited to settle in neighboring regions
• Marriage across ethnic lines created mixed communities, especially in border areas
• Political refugees sometimes sought safety across cultural boundaries

These population movements created communities with mixed heritage that served as cultural bridges between the larger ethnic groups.

The Jukun Kingdom and Its Neighbors

Historical Background

The Jukun people created the Kingdom of Kwararafa (or Kororofa) in the region of the Benue River valley, in what is now Taraba and Benue states, with its capital at Wukari. At its height between the 16th and 18th centuries, Kwararafa was a powerful state that conducted military campaigns against many neighboring societies.

The Jukun king, known as the Aku, was both a political and religious leader. The kingdom had a centralized administration with elaborate court ceremonies and officials with specialized responsibilities. The Jukun were known for their strong military organization that allowed them to project power across significant distances.

Relations with Bornu and Hausa States

The Jukun kingdom had complex relationships with both Bornu and the Hausa states:

• Kwararafa conducted military campaigns against several Hausa cities in the 16th-17th centuries
• The kingdom temporarily forced some Hausa states to pay tribute
• Trade relationships existed alongside political conflict
• Religious ideas and practices were exchanged, particularly after the Hausa adopted Islam
• Diplomatic missions were sometimes exchanged during peaceful periods

According to some traditions, Kwararafa forces reached as far as Bornu, engaging in military conflicts with this powerful empire. However, Bornu’s strength usually kept the Jukun at bay, and more stable trading relationships developed over time.

Interactions with Igbo and Idoma

The Jukun kingdom also interacted with societies to its south, including Igbo and Idoma communities:

• Military raids into these territories sought captives and resources
• Trade networks connected the savanna-based Jukun with forest products from the south
• Cultural influences moved in both directions
• Some Igbo and Idoma communities developed defensive strategies specifically to counter Jukun raids
• Buffer zones emerged with mixed populations and cultural practices

The relationship with these non-centralized societies differed from the kingdom’s interactions with other centralized states. Without kings or central authorities to defeat or negotiate with, the Jukun developed different strategies for dealing with these segmentary societies.

Legacy of Jukun Influence

The influence of the Jukun kingdom left lasting impacts on surrounding societies:

• Some neighboring groups adopted elements of Jukun political organization
• Religious practices spread beyond the kingdom’s borders
• Artistic styles and motifs traveled along trade routes
• Defensive military tactics developed in response to Jukun campaigns influenced military organization in other societies
• Historical memories of Jukun power remained important in the oral traditions of many surrounding groups

The decline of Kwararafa in the 18th-19th centuries changed these relationships, but the cultural and historical connections remained significant. Many ethnic groups in central Nigeria still acknowledge historical connections to the Jukun.

The Changing Nature of Relationships Over Time

Impact of the Trans-Saharan Trade

The trans-Saharan trade network, which connected sub-Saharan Africa with North Africa and beyond, significantly influenced relationships between Nigerian societies:

• States that controlled trade routes gained power and wealth
• Islamic influence spread along trade routes, changing cultural and political patterns
• New goods and technologies entered the region through trade connections
• Merchant communities from different ethnic groups established presences in major trading centers
• Common commercial practices developed that transcended ethnic boundaries

For example, the adoption of Islam by the ruling classes of both Kanem-Bornu and the Hausa states created new forms of connection based on shared religious identity and practices. Scholars and religious teachers traveled between these regions, strengthening cultural ties beyond purely commercial relationships.

Effects of the Atlantic Slave Trade

The arrival of European traders on the Atlantic coast from the 15th century onward changed many traditional relationships:

• Coastal states gained new sources of wealth and power through trade with Europeans
• New trade goods, particularly firearms, altered power balances
• The demand for slaves intensified warfare and raiding
• Some interior states formed new alliances to protect against slave raids
• New middlemen communities emerged to facilitate the changing trade patterns

The Niger Delta city-states grew in power and importance as intermediaries between European traders and interior societies, particularly in their relationship with Igbo communities. Similarly, the Oyo Empire’s access to European goods through coastal trade helped strengthen its position relative to interior neighbors like the Nupe and Bariba.

Religious Transformations

The spread of world religions, particularly Islam, changed relationships between Nigerian societies:

• Islamic states sometimes formed alliances based on shared religion
• Religious boundaries sometimes replaced or reinforced ethnic ones
• New networks of scholars and religious leaders created connections across ethnic lines
• Traditional diplomatic practices were sometimes modified to incorporate Islamic elements
• Religious reform movements occasionally crossed state boundaries

In the 19th century, the Sokoto Caliphate emerged from Usman dan Fodio’s jihad, uniting previously independent Hausa states and establishing new relationships with neighboring societies based on Islamic identity rather than ethnic affiliation.

Legacy of Pre-Colonial Relationships

Cultural Blending in Border Regions

Areas where different ethnic groups interacted often developed distinctive blended cultures:

• Border communities frequently became bilingual
• Mixed cultural practices emerged that borrowed elements from multiple traditions
• Unique artistic styles developed that combined different influences
• Specialized economic roles developed in these communities as intermediaries
• Some border regions developed distinct identities separate from their parent cultures

These border cultures continue to exist in modern Nigeria, though sometimes overlooked in discussions that focus on major ethnic groups.

Trade Routes and Market Networks

Many traditional trade routes and market networks survived into the colonial and post-colonial periods:

• Market towns established in pre-colonial times often remained important commercial centers
• Trading patterns established over centuries influenced modern economic relationships
• Traditional market cycles (4-day or 8-day) continued in many regions
• Specialized trading communities maintained their economic roles
• Indigenous credit systems adapted to changing circumstances

Some of Nigeria’s most important modern markets trace their origins to pre-colonial trading relationships between different centers of civilization.

Historical Memory and Intergroup Relations

The memory of pre-colonial relationships continues to influence how different Nigerian groups view each other:

• Origin stories often reference historical connections between groups
• Past conflicts may be remembered in oral traditions and impact contemporary relations
• Cultural similarities resulting from ancient exchanges are sometimes cited to support cooperation
• Claims to territory or resources occasionally reference pre-colonial relationships
• Political alliances may draw upon historical connections for legitimacy

These historical memories, whether accurate or mythologized, remain important in shaping intergroup perceptions in modern Nigeria.